While crafting an argument, one might consult ancient rhetorical appeals such as ethos, logos, and pathos. These appeals, once mastered, can be utilized for all genres of text and speech.
As tutors, we often have appointments with first-year writing students (whether they want to be there or not) looking to craft, expand, or improve a rhetorical analysis or persuasive essay. Not only can we tutor rhetorical appeals to students so that they can detect them in the texts they analyze, we can also tutor these appeals so that students may utilize them in their own writing.
“Ethos is determined by arguments based on the rhetor’s character and reputation.” -Aristotle
Character is not always situated– writers do not always have a known reputation, or have convinced their audience of their reputation. Therefore, in their writing, they have to establish the kind of writer they are, which is called inventing ethos. According to Sharon Crowley and Debra Hawhee, authors of Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students, there are three tactics one can go about inventing ethos: demonstrating intelligence by doing the homework, establishing good character, and securing goodwill towards the audience. These, however, are not as cut and dry as one may believe.
Demonstrating intelligence is not proving crystallized intelligence– it is making sure writers have done the research on the issue they are discussing. This is part of what makes citing sources so crucial (to both ethos and logos). Establishing good character is not so much about morals and virtue– rather it has to do with the writer establishing her credibility on a subject. This requires relaying to the audience experience and/or credentials. Goodwill towards audience is also not necessarily an exact translation to always accounting for the audiences’ best interests– rather it is giving audience all the necessary information to make a judgement, and not giving the audience false information. Securing goodwill can also be explaining why an issue is important for the audience and even following an instructor’s prompt. By asking questions to writers about why the subject their writing about matters to them, how it relates to their own lives, and if the prompt is being fulfilled, tutors will be able to identify if writers have established good ethos.
“Logos is determined by arguments found in the issue itself.” – Aristotle
Logos is the greek term for logic. Therefore, we may come to know this proof as listing statistics or facts. But there are other ways to go about convincing the audience of logic. Tutors should encourage their writer to use examples of well-known instances to illuminate what is lesser known. This can also be done through analogies– such as this memo from Henry Kissinger to President Richard Nixon. In this example, Kissinger is using the analogy of salted peanuts and the addiction of snacking (a feeling nearly everyone is familiar with) to describe the needs of the American people:
“Withdrawal of U.S. troops will become like salted peanuts to the American public: the more U.S. troops come home, the more will be demanded. This could eventually result, in effect, in demands for unilateral withdrawal– perhaps within a year.”
Kissinger
He is using a familiar instance to convey that some will never be enough. In this instance, having a little bit of a good thing will lead to craving more. And according to Kissinger’s logic, this can also apply to sending home only a few soldiers from Vietnam.
“Pathos is determined by arguments that appeal to the emotions.” -Aristotle
Aristotle established pathos as passionate appeals, or arguments that evoke emotions. Enargeia is a Greek word for a pathos tactic that happens when writers bring themselves to feel the emotions they want their audience to feel. To do this, a writer must depict an event so vividly so that it will transcend the audience. This can happen by getting descriptive. To effectively evoke pathos in writing, ask your writer what they feel– upset, accomplished, confused, etc., then ask them to describe how they feel:
- What does it feel like?
- How would you describe this emotion?
- Is there a physical feeling?
- Perhaps a metaphorical one?
Encourage them not to outwardly write what they feel. Encourage them to write about it using subtle yet descriptive language. It is much more persuasive to describe an emotion rather than declare it. In doing so, writers also have the chance of establishing a style and voice. Writers should be informed that pathos is a great way to experiment with language, as the more creative a feeling is conveyed, the more persuasive it will be.
References
Aristotle. Rhetoric. Ed. J.H. Freese. Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved from http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:
Crowley, Sharon and Hawhee, Debra. Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students. 5th ed. Boston: Pearson, 2012.
Hayez, Francesco. Aristotle, Venice, Italy: Gallerie dell’Accademia, 1811. Retrieved from http://allart.biz/photos/image/Francesco_Hayez_Aristotle.html
Kissinger, Henry. “Our Present Course on Vietnam.” Memorandum for the President, 10 September 1969. Retrieved from https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/salted-peanuts-memo-kissinger-nixon
Raphael. School Of Athens, Vatican City State: Musei Vaticani, 1511. Retrieved from https://mymodernmet.com/school-of-athens-raphael/
One reply on “Contemporary Usage of Ancient Rhetoric”
Interesting post on the appeals! There has been a shift away from the study of ancient rhetoric(s), but I think much of the knowledge that Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, Erasmus, etc. developed can be re-interpreted and used to navigate modern rhetorical situations these thinkers would have never imagined.